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hybrid income tax (H2)<br />A combination of a comprehensive rNCOME TAX and an EXPENDITURE TAX. It was gradually introduced in Japan to encourage savings, e.g. in the form of tax-exempt savings and flat rate capital gains tax.<br /><em>See also:</em> double taxation of savings
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capital transfer tax (H2)<br />UK tax introduced in 1975 on transfers of wealth payable by the donor or recipient during life or at death. Estate duty, in force from 1894 to 1975, was the predecessor of this tax.
Commons, John Rogers, 1862-1945 (B3)<br />US economist who was born in Hollandsburg, Ohio, and a founder of INSTITUflONAL economics. Although educated as a graduate student at Johns Hopkins University, he was never able to finish a college or university degree course. He held academic posts at Wesleyan University and Syracuse University. Much of his life was spent in empirical work in Wisconsin, constructing an index of wholesale prices, investigating labour unions and investigating the economic concepts present in legal reasoning. He took as the foundation of economics volitional theories of value and cost, rather than those based on Uf!LITY or a coMMODITY. He used US Supreme Court cases to establish the working rules which guide and restrain individuals in transactions, the key units of economics. 'Value' and 'economy' were treated as the transactions of millions of people engaged in valuing and economizing. His legal researches also led him to analyse the nature of bargaining power.<br /><em>See also:</em> Ayres; Galbraith; Veblen <br /><em>Reference</em><br />Commons, J.R. (1893) The Distribution of Wealth, New York: Macmillan.<br /> - (1905) Trade Unions and Labor Problems, Boston: Ginn.<br /> - (1924) The Legal Foundations of Capitalism, New York: Macmillan.<br /> - (1934) Institutional Economics: Its Place in Political Economy, New York: Macmillan.<br /> - (1934) Myself, New York: Macmillan. Harter, L.G. (1962) John R. Commons: His Assault on Laissez-Faire, Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press.<br /> Rutherford, M.H. (1983) 'J.R. Commons' institutional economics', Journal of Economic Issues 17: 721-44.
<strong>Grade level</strong> – A student' s academic class level, as certified by a school official. Undergraduate students are assigned a level of 01 (freshman) through 05 (5th year senior). Graduate students are assigned a level A (first year graduate) through D (fourth year and beyond).
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