Horsepower (HP) may be the name of several models of measurement of power. Essentially the most common definitions equal among 735.5 and 750 watts.[1] Horsepower was originally defined to compare the output of steam engines together with the strength of draft horses. The unit was commonly adopted to measure the output of piston engines, turbines, electrical motors, and also other machinery. The definition in the unit varied among geographical regions. Most countries now utilize the SI unit watt for measurement of energy. With all the implementation in the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January one, 2010, the usage of horsepower inside the EU is just permitted as supplementary unit.
The definition with the horsepower also has varied between various programs:
The mechanical horsepower, often known as imperial horsepower, of just 550 foot-pounds for each second is around equivalent to 745.seven watts.
The metric horsepower of 75 kgf-m for each second is around equivalent to 735.499 watts.
The boiler horsepower is used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.five lbs of water evaporated for each hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, or 9,809.five watts.
One horsepower for rating electrical motors is equivalent to 746 watts.
Continental European electrical motors used to have dual ratings, using conversion rate 0.735 kW for 1 HP
The Pferdestärke PS (German translation of horsepower) is a title for a group of similar strength measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size.[2][3]
The Royal Automobile Club (RAC) horsepower or British tax horsepower is an estimate based on several engine dimensions. 1 History of the unit 1.1 Horsepower from a horse 2 Current definitions 2.one Mechanical horsepower
2.2 Metric horsepower 2.2.1 PS
2.2.2 pk, ch, hk, hv, LE, k/ks, KS, KM, CP, PS
2.2.3 CV and cv 2.3 Boiler horsepower
2.4 Electrical horsepower
2.five Relationship with torque
2.6 Drawbar horsepower
2.seven RAC horsepower (taxable horsepower) 3 Measurement 3.one Nominal horsepower
3.2 Indicated horsepower
3.3 Brake horsepower
3.4 British horsepower
3.5 Shaft horsepower 4 Engine power test codes 4.one Society of Automotive Engineers 4.one.one SAE gross energy
4.one.2 SAE net electrical power
4.1.3 SAE certified energy 4.2 Deutsches Institut für Normung 70020
4.3 Economic Commission for Europe R24
4.4 80/1269/EEC
4.5 International Organization for Standardization
4.6 Japanese Industrial Standard D 1001 five See also
6 References
7 External links [edit] History in the unit
The development from the steam engine provided a reason to check the output of horses with that with the engines that could replace them. In 1702, Thomas Savery wrote from the Miner's Friend: "So that an engine which will raise as much water as two horses, working together at one time in such a work, can do, and for which there must be constantly kept ten or twelve horses for doing the same. Then I say, such an engine may be made large enough to do the work required in employing eight, ten, fifteen, or twenty horses to be constantly maintained and kept for doing such a work…" The idea was later used by James Watt to help market his improved steam engine. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third with the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines.[4] This royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour (or 2.4 times a minute). The wheel was 12 feet in radius; therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π × 12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds. So:
This was rounded to an even 33,000 ft·lbf/min.[5]
Others[who?] recount that Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf (0.98 kN) 100 ft (30 m) per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony and thus arrived at the 33,000 ft·lbf/min figure.[citation needed]
Engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds for each minute. John Desaguliers increased that to 27,500 foot-pounds per minute. "Watt found by experiment in 1782 that a 'brewery horse' was able to produce 32,400 foot-pounds per minute." James Watt and Matthew Boulton standardized that figure at 33,000 the next year.[6]
Most observers familiar with horses and their capabilities estimate that Watt was either a bit optimistic or intended to underpromise and overdeliver; few horses can maintain that effort for long. Regardless, comparison with a horse proved to be an enduring marketing tool.[citation needed]
A healthy human can produce about one.2 hp briefly (see orders of magnitude) and sustain about 0.1 hp indefinitely; trained athletes can manage up to about 2.5 hp briefly[7] and 0.3 hp for a period of numerous hours.
[edit] Horsepower from a horse
In 1993, R. D. Stevenson and R. J. Wassersug published an article calculating the upper limit to an animal's electrical power output.[8] The peak energy over a few seconds has been measured to be as high as 14.9 hp. However, Stevenson and Wassersug observe that for sustained activity, a work rate of about 1 hp for each horse is consistent with agricultural advice from both 19th and 20th century sources.
[edit] Current definitions
The following definitions have been broadly used:
Mechanical horsepower
hp(I)
≡ 33,000 ft-lbf/min
= 550 ft·lbf/s
= 745.699872 W
Metric horsepower
hp(M)
≡ 75 kgf·m/s
≡ 735.49875 W
Electrical horsepower
hp(E)
≡ 746 W Boiler horsepower
hp(S)
≡ 33,475 BTU/h
= 9,809.5 W
Hydraulic horsepower
= flow rate (US gal/min) × pressure (psi) × 7/12,000
or
= flow rate (US gal/min) × pressure (psi) / 1714
= 550 ft·lbf/s
= 745.699872 W
In certain situations it is necessary to distinguish amongst the various definitions of horsepower and thus a suffix is added: hp(I) for mechanical (or imperial) horsepower, hp(M) for metric horsepower, hp(S) for boiler (or steam) horsepower and hp(E) for electrical horsepower.
Hydraulic horsepower is equivalent to mechanical horsepower. The formula given above is for conversion to mechanical horsepower from the factors acting on a hydraulic system.
[edit] Mechanical horsepower
Assuming the third CGPM (1901, CR 70) definition of standard gravity, gn=9.80665 m/s2, is used to define the pound-force as well as the kilogram force, and the international avoirdupois pound (1959), one mechanical horsepower is:
1 HP
≡ 33,000 ft·lbf/min
by definition = 550 ft·lbf/s
since
1 min
= 60 s = 550×0.3048×0.45359237 m·kgf/s
since
1 ft
= 0.3048 m and = 76. kgf·m/s 1 lb
= 0.45359237 kg = 76.×9.80665 kg·m2/s3 g
= 9.80665 m/s2 = 745.69987158227022 W
since
1 W
≡ one J/s = 1 N·m/s = 1 (kg·m/s2)·(m/s)
Or given that 1 hp = 550 ft·lbf/s, 1 ft = 0.3048 m, 1 lbf ≈ 4.448 N, 1 J = 1 N·m, 1 W = 1 J/s: 1 hp = 746 W
[edit] Metric horsepower
Metric horsepower began in Germany inside the 19th century and became popular across Europe and Asia. The various models used to indicate this definition (PS, CV, hk, pk, ks and ch) all translate to horse energy in English, so it is widespread to see these values referred to as horsepower or hp from the press releases or media coverage from the German, French, Italian, and Japanese automobile companies. British manufacturers often intermix metric horsepower and mechanical horsepower depending on the origin with the engine in question. Sometimes the metric horsepower rating of an engine is conservative enough so that the same figure can be used for both 80/1269/EEC with metric hp and SAE J1349 with imperial hp.
Metric horsepower, as a rule, is defined as 0.73549875 kW, or roughly 98.6% of mechanical horsepower. This was a minor issue inside the days when measurement systems varied extensively and engines produced less electrical power, but has become a major sticking point today. Exotic cars from Europe like the McLaren F1 and Bugatti Veyron are often quoted using the wrong definition, and their energy output is sometimes even converted twice because of confusion over whether the original horsepower number was metric or mechanical.[citation needed]
[edit] PS
This unit (German: Pferdestärke = horse strength) is no longer a statutory unit, but is still commonly used in Europe, South America, Japan and India especially by the automotive and motorcycle industry. It was adopted throughout continental Europe with designations equivalent to the English horsepower, but mathematically various from the British unit.
DIN 66036 defines one horsepower to lift a mass of seventy five kilograms within one 2nd against the earth gravitation over a distance of one metre.[9] Similar definitions were already widespread to the time of James Watt.
The PS was adopted by the Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN) and then by the automotive industry throughout most of Europe, under varying names. In 1992, the PS was rendered obsolete by EEC directives, when it was replaced by the kilowatt as the official power measuring unit. It is still in use for commercial and advertising purposes, in addition to the kW rating, as many customers are still not familiar with all the utilization of kilowatts for engines.
[edit] pk, ch, hk, hv, LE, k/ks, KS, KM, CP, PS
The Dutch paardenkracht (pk), the French chevaux (ch), the Swedish hästkraft (hk), the Finnish hevosvoima (hv), the Norwegian and Danish hestekraft (hk), the Hungarian lóerő (LE), the Czech koňská síla and Slovak koňská sila (k or ks), the Croatian and Serbian konjska snaga (KS), the Macedonian Којнска сила (KC), the Polish koń mechaniczny and Slovenian konjska moč (KM) and the Romanian cal-putere (CP) all equal the German Pferdestärke (PS), and are approximately equal to 735.5 W.
[edit] CV and cv
In Italian (Cavalli), Spanish (Caballos de vapor), and Portuguese (Cavalo-vapor), CV will be the equivalent to the German, PS. It is also used as the French term for the Pferdestärke, but in French, this should be written in lowercase letters as cv.
In addition, the capital form CV is used in Italy and France as a unit for tax horsepower, short for, respectively, cavalli vapore and chevaux vapeur (steam horses). CV is a non-linear rating of a motor vehicle for tax purposes.[10] The CV rating, or fiscal strength, is , where P could be the maximum strength in kilowatts and U may be the amount of CO2 emitted in grams for each kilometre. The term for CO2 measurements has only been included in the definition since 1998, so older ratings in CV are not directly comparable. The fiscal electrical power has found its way into naming of automobile models, such as the popular Citroën deux-chevaux. The cheval-vapeur (ch) unit should not be confused together with the French cheval fiscal (CV).
In the 19th century,
Office 2010 Pro Plus Key, the French had their own unit, which they used instead with the CV or horsepower. It was called the poncelet and was abbreviated p.
[edit] Boiler horsepower
One boiler horse electrical power unit or BHP is equivalent to a boiler thermal output of 33,475 BTU/h (9.811 kW), which is the energy rate needed to evaporate 34.5 lb (15.65 kg) at 212 °F (100 °C) in one hour. The unit is not current outside of North America.
The term was at first developed at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition in 1876, where the best steam engines of that period were tested. The average steam consumption of those engines (per output horsepower) was determined to be the evaporation of 30 lb/h of water, based on feedwater at 100 °F (37.8 °C), and saturated steam generated at 70 psi (480 kPa) gauge pressure. This original definition is equivalent to a boiler heat output of 33,485 BTU/h (9.813 kW). In 1884, the ASME redefined the boiler horsepower as the thermal output equivalent to the evaporation of 34.5 lb/h of water "from and at" 212 °F. This considerably simplified boiler testing, and provided more accurate comparisons of the boilers at that time. This revised definition is equivalent to a boiler heat output of 33,469 BTU/h (9.809 kW). Present industrial practice is to define boiler horsepower as a boiler thermal output equal to 33,475 BTU/h (9.811 kW), which is very close to the original and revised definitions.
The amount of energy that can be obtained by a steam engine or steam turbine based on boiler horsepower varies so extensively that use of the term is entirely obsolete for these purposes. The term makes no distinction as to the steam pressure or temperature which is produced (both of which significantly influence engine/turbine output); it merely defines a thermal output of a boiler. Smaller steam engines often require numerous boiler horsepower to make one horsepower, and modern steam turbines can make strength with as little as about 0.15 hp (boiler) thermal output per actual horsepower developed.
[edit] Electrical horsepower
The horsepower used for electrical machines is defined as just 746 W. The nameplates on electrical motors show their energy output, not their power input
[edit] Relationship with torque
For a given torque and speed, the strength may be calculated; the relationship among torque in foot-pounds, rotational speed in rpm and horsepower is:
Where P is strength, τ is torque, and f is rotations for each minute. The constant 5252 comes from (33,000 ft·lbf/min)/(2π rad/rev).
The standard equation relating torque in inch kilos, rotational speed in rpm and horsepower is:
Where P is energy, τ is torque, and f is rotations for each minute. The constant 63,025 comes from (33,000 ft·lbf/min) × (12 in/ft)/(2π rad/rev).
See torque.
[edit] Drawbar horsepower See also Strength at rail
Drawbar horsepower (dbhp) will be the power a railway locomotive has available to haul a train or an agricultural tractor to pull an implement. This is a measured figure rather than a calculated one. A special railway car called a dynamometer car coupled behind the locomotive keeps a continuous record with the drawbar pull exerted, and the speed. From these, the energy generated can be calculated. To determine the maximum power available, a controllable load is required; it is normally a second locomotive with its brakes applied, in addition to a static load.
If the drawbar force (F) is measured in pounds-force (lbf) and speed (v) is measured in miles per hour (mph), then the drawbar energy (P) in horsepower (hp) is:
Example: How much electrical power is needed to pull a drawbar load of 2,025 pounds-force at five miles per hour?
The constant 375 is because 1 hp = 375 lbf·mph. If other units are used, the constant is diverse. When using a coherent system of units, such as SI (watts, newtons, and metres per second), no constant is needed, and the formula becomes P = Fv.
[edit] RAC horsepower (taxable horsepower)
This measure was instituted by the Royal Automobile Club in Britain and was used to denote the power of early 20th century British cars. Many cars took their names from this figure (hence the Austin Seven and Riley Nine), while others had names such as "40/50 hp", which indicated the RAC figure followed by the true measured electrical power.
Taxable horsepower does not reflect developed horsepower; rather, it is a calculated figure based on the engine's bore size, number of cylinders, and a (now archaic) presumption of engine efficiency. As new engines were designed with ever-increasing efficiency, it was no longer a useful measure, but was kept in use by UK regulations which used the rating for tax purposes.
where D is the diameter (or bore) with the cylinder in inches
n will be the number of cylinders [11]
This is equivalent to the displacement in cubic inches divided by 10π then divided again by the stroke in inches.
Since taxable horsepower was computed based on bore and number of cylinders, not based on actual displacement, it gave rise to engines with 'undersquare' dimensions (i.e., relatively narrow bore), but long stroke; this tended to impose an artificially low limit on rotational speed (rpm), hampering the potential power output and efficiency in the engine.
The situation persisted for several generations of four- and six-cylinder British engines: for example, Jaguar's 3.4-litre XK engine in the 1950s had six cylinders with a bore of 83 mm (3.27 in) and a stroke of 106 mm (4.17 in),[12] where most American automakers had long since moved to oversquare (wide bore, short stroke) V-8s (see, for example, the early Chrysler Hemi).
[edit] Measurement
The electrical power of an engine may be measured or estimated at many points in the transmission with the power from its generation to its application. A number of names are used for the energy developed at various stages in this process, but none is a clear indicator of either the measurement system or definition used.
In the case of an engine dynamometer, strength is measured at the engine's flywheel (i.e., at the crankshaft output). With a chassis dynamometer or rolling road, power output is measured at the driving wheels. This accounts for the significant power loss through the drive train.
In general:
Nominal is derived from the size with the engine and the piston speed and is only accurate at a pressure of 48 kPa (7 psi).[13] Indicated or gross horsepower (theoretical capability of the engine) [ PLAN/ 33000] minus frictional losses within the engine (bearing drag, rod and crankshaft windage losses, oil film drag, etc.), equals Brake / net / crankshaft horsepower (energy delivered directly to and measured at the engine's crankshaft) minus frictional losses inside the transmission (bearings, gears, oil drag,
Microsoft Office 2010 Home And Business, windage, etc.), equals Shaft horsepower (strength delivered to and measured at the output shaft of the transmission, when present within the system) minus frictional losses in the universal joint/s, differential, wheel bearings,
Microsoft Office 2007 Pro Plus, tire and chain, (if present), equals Effective, True (thp) or commonly referred to as wheel horsepower (whp)
All the above assumes that no energy inflation factors have been applied to any with the readings.
Engine designers use expressions other than horsepower to denote objective targets or performance, such as brake mean effective pressure (BMEP). This is a coefficient of theoretical brake horsepower and cylinder pressures during combustion.
[edit] Nominal horsepower
Nominal horsepower (nhp) is an early Nineteenth Century rule of thumb used to estimate the power of steam engines.
nhp = 7 x area of piston x equivalent piston speed/33,000
For paddle ships the piston speed was estimated as 129.7 x (stroke)1/3.35
For the nominal horsepower to equal the actual electrical power it would be necessary for the mean steam pressure within the cylinder during the stroke to be 48 kPa (7 psi) and for the piston speed to be from the order of 54–75 m/min.[13]
[edit] Indicated horsepower
Indicated horsepower (ihp) is the theoretical electrical power of a reciprocating engine if it is completely frictionless in converting the expanding gas energy (piston pressure × displacement) within the cylinders. It is calculated from the pressures developed from the cylinders, measured by a device called an engine indicator – hence indicated horsepower. As the piston advances throughout its stroke, the pressure against the piston generally decreases, and the indicator device usually generates a graph of pressure vs stroke within the working cylinder. From this graph the amount of work performed during the piston stroke may be calculated. It was the figure normally used for steam engines inside the 19th century but is misleading because the actual power output may only be 70% to 90% from the indicated horsepower.
[edit] Brake horsepower
Brake horsepower (bhp) is the measure of an engine's horsepower before the loss in power caused by the gearbox, alternator, differential, water pump, and other auxiliary components such as electrical power steering pump, muffled exhaust system, etc. Brake refers to a device which was used to load an engine and hold it at a desired RPM. During testing, the output torque and rotational speed were measured to determine the brake horsepower. Horsepower was at first measured and calculated by use of the indicator (a James Watt invention from the late 18th century), and later by means of a De Prony brake connected to the engine's output shaft. More recently, an engine dynamometer is used instead of a De Prony brake. The output delivered to the driving wheels is less than that obtainable at the engine's crankshaft.
[edit] British horsepower
The abbreviation bhp may also be used for British horsepower (though the usual use is Brake Horse Strength), which has the same definition as the American SAE gross brake horsepower: 33,000 lb·ft/min. More information on American SAE horsepower measurements is below.
[edit] Shaft horsepower
Shaft horsepower (shp) may be the energy delivered to the propeller shafts of a steamship (or one powered by diesel engines or nuclear energy),
Microsoft Office Pro Plus 2007, or an aircraft powered by a piston engine or a gas turbine engine. This shaft horsepower can be measured with instruments, or estimated from the indicated horsepower and a standard figure for the losses in the transmission (typical figures are around 10%). This measure is uncommonly used in the automobile industry,
Office 2010 Activation Key, because there, drive train losses can become significant.
[edit] Engine strength test codes
Engine power test codes determine how the strength and torque of an automobile engine is measured and corrected. Correction factors are used to adjust strength and torque measurements to standard atmospheric conditions to provide a more accurate comparison amongst engines as they are affected by the pressure, humidity, and temperature of ambient air.[14] There exist many standards for this purpose, some described below.
[edit] Society of Automotive Engineers
[edit] SAE gross power
Prior to the 1972 model year, American automakers rated and advertised their engines in brake horsepower (bhp), frequently referred to as SAE gross horsepower, because it was measured in accord using the protocols defined in SAE standards J245 and J1995. As with other brake horsepower test protocols, SAE gross hp was measured using a stock test engine, generally running with few belt-driven accessories and sometimes fitted with long tube (test headers) in lieu with the OEM exhaust manifolds. The atmospheric correction standards for barometric pressure, humidity and temperature for testing were relatively idealistic.
[edit] SAE net energy
In the United States, the term bhp fell into disuse in 1971-72, as automakers began to quote electrical power in terms of SAE net horsepower in accord with SAE standard J1349. Like SAE gross as well as other brake horsepower protocols, SAE Net hp is measured at the engine's crankshaft, and so does not account for transmission losses. However, the SAE net power testing protocol calls for standard production-type belt-driven accessories, air cleaner, emission controls, exhaust system, as well as other power-consuming accessories. This produces ratings in closer alignment using the energy produced by the engine as it is actually configured and sold.
[edit] SAE certified electrical power
In 2005, the SAE introduced "SAE Certified Power" with SAE J2723.[15] This test is voluntary and is in itself not a separate engine test code but a certification of either J1349 or J1995 after which the manufacturer is allowed to advertise "Certified to SAE J1349" or "Certified to SAE J1995" depending on which test standard have been followed. To attain certification the test must follow the SAE standard in question, take place in a ISO9000/9002 certified facility and be witnessed by an SAE approved third party.
A few manufacturers such as Honda and Toyota switched to the new ratings immediately, with multi-directional results; the rated output of Cadillac's supercharged Northstar V8 jumped from 440 to 469 hp (330 to 350 kW) under the new tests, while the rating for Toyota's Camry 3.0 L 1MZ-FE V6 fell from 210 to 190 hp (160 to 140 kW). The ES330 and Camry SE V6 were previously rated at 225 hp (168 kW) but the ES330 dropped to 218 hp (163 kW) while the Camry declined to 210 hp (160 kW). The first engine certified under the new program was the 7.0 L LS7 used within the 2006 Chevrolet Corvette Z06. Certified energy rose slightly from 500 to 505 hp (370 to 377 kW).
While Toyota and Honda are retesting their entire vehicle lineups, other automakers generally are retesting only those with updated powertrains. For example, the 2006 Ford Five Hundred is rated at 203 horsepower, the same as that of 2005 model. However, the 2006 rating does not reflect the new SAE testing procedure as Ford is not going to spend the extra expense of retesting its existing engines. Over time, most automakers are expected to comply with the new guidelines.
SAE tightened its horsepower rules after some engineers noticed parts from the old test could be subjected to different interpretations. Under the old testing procedures, there were small factors that required a judgment call: how much oil was from the crankcase, how the engine controls were calibrated and whether a vehicle was tested with premium fuel. In some cases, such can add up to a change in horsepower ratings. A road test editor at Edmunds.com, John Di Pietro, said decreases in horsepower ratings for some '06 models are not that dramatic. For vehicles like a midsize family sedan, it is likely that the reputation in the manufacturer will be more important.[16]
[edit] Deutsches Institut für Normung 70020
DIN 70020 is a standard from German DIN regarding road vehicles. Because the German word for horsepower is Pferdestärke, in Germany it is commonly abbreviated to PS. DIN hp is measured at the engine's output shaft, and is usually expressed in metric (Pferdestärke) rather than mechanical horsepower.
[edit] Economic Commission for Europe R24
ECE R24 is a European standard for the approval of compression ignition engine emissions, installation and measurement of engine power.[17] It is similar to DIN 70020 standard, but with different requirements for connecting an engine's fan during testing causing it to absorb less energy from the engine.[18]
[edit] 80/1269/EEC
80/1269/EEC of 16 December 1980 is a European Union standard for road vehicle engine power.
[edit] International Organization for Standardization ISO 14396 specifies the additional and method requirement for determinating the power of reciprocating internal combustion engines when presented for an ISO 8178 exhaust emission test. It applies to reciprocating internal combustion engines for land, rail and marine use excluding engines of motor vehicles primarily designed for road use.[19] ISO 1585 is an engine net electrical power test code intended for road vehicles.[20] ISO 2534 is an engine gross strength test code intended for road vehicles[21] ISO 4164 is an engine net strength test code intended for mopeds.[22] ISO 4106 is an engine net electrical power test code intended for motorcycles.[23] ISO 9249 is an engine net electrical power test code intended for earth moving machines.[24] [edit] Japanese Industrial Standard D 1001
JIS D 1001 is a Japanese net, and gross, engine power test code for automobiles or trucks having a spark ignition, diesel engine, or fuel injection engine.[25]
[edit] See also Brake specific fuel consumption—how much fuel an engine consumes for each unit energy output
Horse strength (machine)
Horsepower-hour
European units of measurement directives [edit] References [edit] External links Energy and Torque Explained A clear explanation with the relationship amongst Energy and Torque, and how they relate to engine performance.
Road Dyno Measures Horsepower Road dynamometer results vs. a chassis dyno.
How Stuff Works - Horsepower
Horsepower and Torque An article showing how strength, torque, and gearing affect a vehicle's performance.
Online Horsepower Converter
Horsepower and electrical power losses Explains Horsepower and the energy losses inside the engine and electrical power train.
What is Horsepower? (picture)
"What's the difference between horsepower and torque?" at the Straight Dope
Vehicle Horsepower Calculator from 1/4 mile data v · d · eISO standards Lists: List of ISO standards · List of ISO romanizations · List of IEC standards
Categories: Category:ISO standards · Category:OSI protocols 1
to
9999 10000
to
19999 20000+ See also: All articles beginning with "ISO"
Microsoft Office 2007 Pro Plus Horsepower - Wikipe
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